Vol. 1 No. 1 (2026)
Opening Issue

Original articles

Visual performance in elementary school children: Associations with Reading and arithmetic performance

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5282/breakingbarriers/22

Published 2026-08-21

  • Katharina Limbach
    • ,
  • Carina Schücker
    • ,
  • Christin Vanauer
    • ,
  • Ann-Katrin Schulz
    • ,
  • Teresa Sartor
    • ,
  • Jörg-Tobias Kuhn
    • ,
  • Sarah Weigelt

Katharina Limbach
HU Berlin

Carina Schücker
TU Dortmund

Christin Vanauer
TU Dortmund

Ann-Katrin Schulz
TU Dortmund

Teresa Sartor
TU Dortmund

Jörg-Tobias Kuhn
TU Dortmund

Sarah Weigelt
TU Dortmund

Abstract

Vision is important for learning and development. However, empirical evidence linking basic visual and academic performance in general school populations remains limited. Here, we examined arithmetic and reading performance and basic visual functions in two independent samples including 110 third graders (8-10 years; Screening Sample: 75 students without known learning disabilities; Intervention Study Sample: 35 students including 24 children with learning disabilities). In the Screening Sample, we found positive correlations between near visual acuity (VA) and subtraction (τ = .234, p = .014) as well as between near VA and reading fluency (τ = .324, p = .001). In the Intervention Study Sample more students with learning disabilities had lower near VA compared to their peers without such disabilities (χ2(3) = 11.363, p = .01). Our findings indicate that variation in visual performance may be associated with differences in academic performance. These results highlight the potential relevance of visual screening in educational contexts, particularly for children with learning disabilities.

Keywords

vision, learning disabilities, visual acuity, arithmetic, reading, dyscalculia, dyslexia

PDF

References

  1. References
  2. AWMF: Association of the Scientific Medical Societies in Germany. (2010). Leitlinie 26 a Amblyopie: S2e Leitlinie AWMF- Registernummer 045/009. https://www.dog.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/LL-26-Amb-2010-12-29-mit-Inhaltsverz-+Interessenkonfl-Endversion.pdf
  3. Brigstocke, S., Moll, K, & & Hulme, C. (2016). Test of Basic Arithmetic and Numeracy Skills. Oxford University Press.
  4. Butterworth, B., & Kovas, Y. (2013). Understanding neurocognitive developmental disorders can improve education for all. Science (New York, N.Y.), 340(6130), 300–305. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1231022
  5. Chen, A.‑H., Bleything, W., & Lim, Y.‑Y. (2011). Relating vision status to academic achievement among year-2 school children in Malaysia. Optometry (St. Louis, Mo.), 82(5), 267–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optm.2011.02.004
  6. Commodari, E., Guarnera, M., Di Stefano, A., & Di Nuovo, S. (2020). Children Learn to Read: How Visual Analysis and Mental Imagery Contribute to the Reading Performances at Different Stages of Reading Acquisition. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 49(1), 59–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-019-09671-w
  7. Duane, A. (1922). Studies in Monocular and Binocular Accommodation, with Their Clinical Application. Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society, 20, 132–157.
  8. Dusek, W., Pierscionek, B. K., & McClelland, J. F. (2010). A survey of visual function in an Austrian population of school-age children with reading and writing difficulties. BMC Ophthalmology, 10, 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2415-10-16
  9. Evans, J. R., Morjaria, P., & Powell, C. (2018). Vision screening for correctable visual acuity deficits in school-age children and adolescents. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2(2), CD005023. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005023.pub3
  10. Falkenberg, H. K., Langaas, T., & Svarverud, E. (2019). Vision status of children aged 7-15 years referred from school vision screening in Norway during 2003-2013: A retrospective study. BMC Ophthalmology, 19(1), 180. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-019-1178-y
  11. Fias, W., Menon, V., & Szucs, D. (2013). Multiple components of developmental dyscalculia. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 2(2), 43–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2013.06.006
  12. Goldstand, S., Koslowe, K. C., & Parush, S. (2005). Vision, visual-information processing, and academic performance among seventh-grade schoolchildren: A more significant relationship than we thought? The American Journal of Occupational Therapy : Official Publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association, 59(4), 377–389. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.59.4.377
  13. Görgen, R., Huemer, S., Schulte-Körne, G., & Moll, K. (2020). Evaluation of a digital game-based reading training for German children with reading disorder. Computers & Education, 150, 103834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103834
  14. Haberstroh, S., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2019). The Diagnosis and Treatment of Dyscalculia. Deutsches Arzteblatt International, 116(7), 107–114. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2019.0107
  15. Haffner, J., Baro, K., Parzer, P., & Resch, F. (2005). Heidelberger Rechentest: Erfassung mathematischer Basiskompetenzen im Grundschulalter. Hogrefe.
  16. Henriksen, A., & Laemers, F. (2016). Funktionales Sehen: Diagnostik und Interventionen bei Beeinträchtigungen des Sehens. Edition Bentheim.
  17. Hopkins, S., Narayanasamy, S., Vincent, S. J., Sampson, G. P., & Wood, J. M. (2020). Do reduced visual acuity and refractive error affect classroom performance? Clinical & Experimental Optometry, 103(3), 278–289. https://doi.org/10.1111/cxo.12953
  18. Hyvärinen, L., & Jacob, N. (2019). What and how does this child see? Assessment of visual functioning for development and learning (2nd [revised] edition). LEA Test Intl, LLC.
  19. Jacobs, C., & Petermann, F. (2003). Dyskalkulie - Forschungsstand und Perspektiven. Kindheit Und Entwicklung, 12(4), 197–211. https://doi.org/10.1026//0942-5403.12.4.197
  20. Kaufmann, H., & Steffen, H. (Eds.). (2020). Strabismus (5., vollständig überarbeitete Auflage). Thieme. http://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:bsz:24-epflicht-1932937
  21. Kißler, C., Schwenk, C., & Kuhn, J.‑T. (2021). Two Dyscalculia Subtypes With Similar, Low Comorbidity Profiles: A Mixture Model Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 589506. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.589506
  22. Krajewski, K., Liehm, S., & Schneider, W.. (2004). DEMAT 2+: Deutscher Mathematiktest für zweite Klassen (1st ed.). Beltz.
  23. Kristjánsson, Á., & Sigurdardottir, H. M. (2023). The Role of Visual Factors in Dyslexia. Journal of Cognition, 6(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.287
  24. Kuhn, J.‑T., & Holling, H. (2014). Number sense or working memory? The effect of two computer-based trainings on mathematical skills in elementary school. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 10(2), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0157-2
  25. Kuhn, J.‑T., Ise, E., Raddatz, J., Schwenk, C., & Dobel, C. (2016). Basic numerical processing, calculation, and working memory in children with dyscalculia and/or ADHD symptoms. Zeitschrift Fur Kinder- Und Jugendpsychiatrie Und Psychotherapie, 44(5), 365–375. https://doi.org/10.1024/1422-4917/a000450
  26. Lachenmayr, B., Friedburg, D., & Buser, A. (2016). Auge - Brille - Refraktion: Schober-Kurs: verstehen - lernen - anwenden (5., vollständig überarbeitete Auflage). Thieme. http://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:bsz:24-epflicht-1927243
  27. Landerl, K., Göbel, S. M., & Moll, K. (2013). Core deficit and individual manifestations of developmental dyscalculia (DD): The role of comorbidity. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 2(2), 38–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2013.06.002
  28. Larsson, E., Holmström, G., & Rydberg, A. (2015). Ophthalmological findings in 10-year-old full-term children--a population-based study. Acta Ophthalmologica, 93(2), 192–198. https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.12476
  29. Lenhard, W., & Schneider, W. (2006). Ein Leseverständnistest für Erst-und Sechstklässler: ELFE 1-6. Hogrefe.
  30. Mayringer, H., & Wimmer, H. (2014). Salzburger Lese-Screening für die Schulstufen 2-9. Hogrefe.
  31. Mix, K. S., Levine, S. C., Cheng, Y.‑L., Young, C., Hambrick, D. Z., Ping, R., &
  32. Konstantopoulos, S. (2016). Separate but correlated: The latent structure of space and mathematics across development. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 145(9), 1206–1227. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000182
  33. Moll, K., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., Bruder, J., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2014). Specific learning disorder: Prevalence and gender differences. PloS One, 9(7), e103537. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103537
  34. Moll, K., & Landerl, K. (2014). Lese- und Rechtschreibtest Weiterentwicklung des Salzburger Lese- und Rechtschreibtests (SLRT). Hogrefe.
  35. Mudie, L. I., Guo, X., Slavin, R. E., Madden, N., Wolf, R., Owoeye, J., Friedman, D. S., Repka, M. X., & Collins, M. E. (2022). Baltimore Reading and Eye Disease Study: vision outcomes of school-based eye care. Canadian journal of ophthalmology. Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie, 57(1), 36–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcjo.2021.02.013
  36. Narayanasamy, S., Vincent, S. J., Sampson, G. P., & Wood, J. M. (2016). Visual demands in modern Australian primary school classrooms. Clinical & Experimental Optometry, 99(3), 233–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/cxo.12365
  37. Pennington, B. F. (2006). From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders. Cognition, 101(2), 385–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008
  38. Raghuram, A., Hunter, D. G., Gowrisankaran, S., & Waber, D. P. (2019). Self-reported visual symptoms in children with developmental dyslexia. Vision Research, 155, 11–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2018.11.007
  39. Tablante, J., Krossa, L., Azimi, T., & Chen, L. (2023). Dysfunctions associated with the intraparietal sulcus and a distributed network in individuals with math learning difficulties: An ALE meta-analysis. Human Brain Mapping, 44(7), 2726–2740. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.26240
  40. Vernet, M., Bellocchi, S., Leibnitz, L., Chaix, Y., & Ducrot, S. (2022). Predicting future poor readers from pre-reading visual skills: A longitudinal study. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 11(3), 480–494. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2021.1895790
  41. Wechsler, D. (2017). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fifth Edition (WISC-V): Deutsche Bearbeitung durch F. Petermann. Pearson.
  42. Williams, C., Pease, A., Warnes, P., Harrison, S., Pilon, F., Hyvärinen, L., West, S., Self, J., & Ferris, J. (2021). Cerebral visual impairment-related vision problems in primary school children: A cross-sectional survey. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 63(6), 683–689. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.14819
  43. Wilson, A. J., & Dehaene, S. (2007). Number sense and developmental dyscalculia. In D. Coch, G. Dawson, & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Human behavior, learning, and the developing brain: Atypical development (pp. 212–238). The Guilford Press.
  44. Wood, J. M., Black, A. A., Hopkins, S., & White, S. L. J. (2018). Vision and academic performance in primary school children. Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics : The Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists), 38(5), 516–524. https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.12582

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.